THE HISTORY OF TAEKWONDO

Martial arts, like people, are imbued at the moment of their birth with an essential structure which will define the remainder of their existence.  In a person, this is called one's "true nature."  It is that fundamental set of qualities that makes something wholly unique unto itself, like no other.  Understanding our true nature is essential, since it helps us determine the course of events which allow us to grow and prosper.  For martial artists, understanding the roots of their style is vital, since the roots define the art, determining the manner by which the art will grow and evolve over time.  For novices, a sense of history gives them a connection to the past and to a tradition greater than themselves, while for masters, a sense of history is crucial if they wish to be a vital part of a living, evolving martial art, such as Taekwondo.  A collective understanding of Taekwondo's origins, philosophy, and techniques thus allows us to build on its foundation in a way that permits diversity of expression, while retaining those essential qualities that make it only Taekwondo.

The Evolution of Martial Arts

The history of the martial arts is essentially an oral tradition.  Very little was actually written down until recent times.  When one begins examining a broad range of martial arts, it becomes quickly evident that much of their history is contradictory.  It is uncommon to find a particular martial art tracing its roots to the "dawn of time."  Specific histories are often touted as fact when they may be little more than anecdotes, or a loose collection of unsubstantiated myths.

The history of most martial arts are intimately entwined with those of the civilisations and cultures with which they are associated.  Some ancient cultures left written or visual evidence, others did not.

Fighting skills have of course existed since the dawn of time and developed concurrently in many different geographic regions.  These early skills, used by primitive humans for hunting and self-protection, eventually evolved into more sophisticated martial arts.  As the modes of travel and communication evolved, cross-cultural influences and wars allowed neighbouring societies to observe and absorb martial skills from outside sources.  Buddhism, an important element in Korean, Chinese, and Japanese cultures, is known to have orginated in India and subsequently spread throughout Central, East, and Southeast Asia.  Many Buddhist and Taoist monks practiced martial arts and transmitted their ideas and techniques across cultures.

The earliest written evidence of specific empty-hand arts appears in Egypt, Greece, Crete, and India, although it is likely ingenious martial systems existed in other areas as well.  It is thought that the migration of martial arts from China and India to neighbouring regions influenced the development of native arts throughout Asia.  Among the arts emerging between 400 and 1650 are:  Aiki-Jujutsu, Bushido, Capoeri, Chin Na, Chinese Boxing, Jojutsu, Kenjutsu, Kung Fu, Nen Ryu, Ninjutsu, Silat, Subak, Sumo, Tai Chuan, Te Yawara and Wing Chun.

Taekwondo's Roots

"Taekwondo" is coined wood originally created in 1955 to unify a broad range of Korean hard-styles that evolved from native Korean arts.  The evolution of these earlier hard-styles was also influenced, in varying degrees, by contact with Japanese and Chinese martial arts encountered during frequent national conflicts in the first half of the twentieth century.  As a result, many early Taekwondo styles exhibited distinct similarities with Chinese and Japanese martial arts.

During the latter part of the twentieth century, Taekwondo changed dramatically as its philosophical and technical foundation evolved, mostly as a result of Korean efforts to purge overtly foreign influences, incorporate new technical innovations, and reframe the art in a manner that more fully reflected Korea's culture, traditions, and national character.  While Taekwondo has often been characterized in the past as a Korean interpretation of Japanese Karate - which many feel it was in its infancy - there can be little doubt today that it has evolved into a unique martial art that is very much a product of Korean culture, just as Japanese Karate evolved from its earlier Chinese roots according to the needs of Japanese culture.

Taekwondo's evolution from a derivative style into a unique martial art and global sport did not occur overnight, and not without strife and discord within its own ranks - growing pains that continue even today.  In order to fully understand the dynamic circumstances surrounding Taekwondo's evolution, its roots, and the source material from which its technical foundationd developed, one must trace the evolution of both Korean and foreign martial arts.  Such an exercise also reveals Taekwondo's relationship to other twentieth century arts such as Tang Soo Do, Karate, Kempo, and Korean ecletic styles such as Hapkido, Kuk Sool Won, and Hwa Rang Do.

Early Korean Arts

The Korean peninsula was first inhabited around 30,000 BC, when nomadic tribes from Central and Northern Asia migrated into the area.  The earliest outside influences absorbed by these tribes likely came through contact with the Chinese, who established commanderies (outposts) in the northern part of the Korean peninsula, from around 108 BC.  Constant wars with the Chinese forces these scattered tribal settlements to gradually coalesce into larger political entities, eventually leading to the formation of three powerful kingdoms:  Koguryo, Silla and Paekche.  This marked the beginning of the Three Kingdoms Period (18 BC - AD 668).

During this period, Korean arts, architecture, literature, politics, and military arts flourished, as Chinese influences continued to be assimilated and reinterpreted in a uniquely Korean manner.  Buddhism gradually became the state religion of all three kingdoms, and was eventually transmitted to Japan by way of Paekche.  Increasing contact between the cultures of Korea, Japan and China not only influenced their respective societies, but their native martial arts as well.

Native Korean martial arts are thought to have first emerged sometime during the Three Kingdoms Period (18 BC - AD 668).  During this time, Korean martial arts did not possess a single umbrella-name.  Instead, it is believed that specific skills were grouped into technique areas, which were labelled using generic terms.  Some of these terms are:

• Su Bak (punching and kicking)

• T'ae Kyon (kicking)

• Kag Ju (throwing)

• Kung Sa (archery)

• Ki Ma Sa Bop (horse archery)

• Tan Gom Sul (short-knife)

• Su Yong Bop (fighting in water)

Note that these are not the names of specific martial arts styles or systems, although they are often used incorrectly in this context.

While it has been recorded that martial arts training was taken seriously and contests were popular, there are unfortunately no surviving written accounts describing these native martial systems or their specific techniques.  The limited information we do have comes mostly from paintings, artifacts, and two ancient Korean manuscripts:  the Samkuk Saki ("Three Kingdoms History"), written in the twelfth century, and the Samkuk Yusa ("Three Kingdoms Memorabilia), written in the thirteenth century.  Ancient Chinese and Japanese texts also make occasional reference to Korean martial arts.

It was during the Three Kingdoms Period that two notable warrior classes evolved:  the Sun Bi ("intelligent-brave"), and later, the Hwa Rang ("flower of youth").  The Hwa Rang emerged in the Silla kingdom about 550.  In addition to being warriors, they are reputed to have established a high moral code of conduct and were schooled in the intellectual and cultural arts of the time.  They were later instrumental in unifying Korea and are also thought to have influenced development of Japanese Bushido ("way of the warrior"), a code of ethics followed by the Japanese warrior-classes.  This early transmission of Korean martial arts may have occurred during the Three Kingdoms Period, when Korean culture was first exported to Japan.  For example, architects from Korean Paekche were heavily involved in the proliferation of temple building which occurred in Japan during the sixth century.  In fact, there were times during Japan's early history when there were more Koreans involved in secular and religious positions than Japanese.

The Korean peninsula was first unified in 668 when the Silla kingdom conquered Koguryo and Paekche.  This unification would last through various changes in governments until the mid-twentieth century.  For the next 800 years, Korean martial arts went through various periods of advance and decline, depending upon the prevailing political climate and the needs of the people.  Around 1100, the generic term Yu Sul ("soft arts") emerged as an umbrella term for a range of soft-style martial skills.  Yu Sul is said to have been characterized by throws (mechigi), grappling (kuchigi), and attacks to vital points (kuepso chirigi).  Kuepso Chirigi is the Korean equivalent of Japanese Atami and Chinese Tien Hsueh and Dim Mok - all of which were integrated into many contemporary arts.

Sometime after 1400 more sophisticated empty-hand fighting systems evolved.  Kwon Bop ("law of the fist") emerged as an umbrella term for Korean empty-hand techniques.  Ssirum was a system of grappling skills, with roots in Mongolian wrestling.  Pakchigi was a system of head-butting, popular in northern Korea.  Kag Sul and T'ae Kyon were systems emphasizing kicks, and Su Sul was a system of empty-hand derived from sword skills.  At some point, Kag Sul eventually came to be called Subyukta.  Subyukta has also been referred to as Su Bak, Su Bak Ki, and Su Bak Do.  T'ae Kyon was widely practiced and continued to evolve into the twentieth century.  Many of the philosophical ideas and martial techniques found throughout these systems, would eventually be integrated into Taekwondo and other modern Korean martial arts.

Early Chinese and Japanese Arts

There are various theories concerning how the hard-style martial art we have come to call Karate evolved.  One commonly held view is that Chinese martial skills (Ch'uan Fa) were first exported into the Ryukyu archipelago (now part of Japan) sometime between 600 and 1200, most likely by early Chinese expeditions, or when survivors fleeing from Japan's tenth century feudal wars swarmed Ryukyu islands, particularly Okinawa.  Some historians believe that these imported arts, called Tode ("Chinese hand").  After 1350, Okinawa began to develop rapidly, largely as a result of diplomatic, relations with China, Korea and Japan, and trade with neighboring regions, including Taiwan, Siam, Malacca, Sumatra and Java.  Martial arts from these regions were likely introduced during this time, and may have been freely mixed with Chinese Ch'uan Fa and native Okinawan skills.

In the early 1600s, the Japanese invaded Okinawa, subsequently banning the practice of martial arts and possession of many weapons.  As a result, empty-hand systems were studied secretly for the next several hundred years, and over time, modified according to the needs of the Okinawan people.  These techniques came to be referred to using various terms, most commonly Te ("hand").  Sometime between 1780 and 1903 when Okinawa was being assimilated into the Japanese cultural sphere, Okinawan adopted the name Karate ("Chinese hand") to replace "Te".  "Kara-te" is coined word combining two characters:  Kara, the ideogram for the T'ang Dynasty of China: and Te, the ideogram for "hand".  by 1910, this name was in widespread use throughout Okinawa.  Notable Okinawan styles ("ryu") at that time include: Goju-ryu, Kan-ryu, Kushin-ryu.  Nihon Kempo-ryu, Shindo Jinen-ryu.  Shorin-ryu, Shotokan-ryu, and Wado-ryu.

Beginning around 1915, Okinawa Karate was adopted by the Japanese, who gradually modified it according to their own own needs, strengthening it with skills found in Japanese Jujutsu (empty-hand combat systems) and Atemi (attacks to vital points).  The most obvious differences between the Okinawan and Japanese styles were that the Japanese favored a more linear or angular approach whereas the Okinawan styles utilized quick, circular motions that were more similar to Chinese styles.  Karate-do ("Chinese-hand way") and Karate-jutsu ("Chinese-hand art") are other commonly used terms that emerged in the early twentieth century.

In the mid 1930s, the ideogram for Kara ("Chinese") was changed to an ideogram meaning "empty" (as in emptying oneself to achieve serenity) - also pronounced as "Kara."  The use of an alternate character for "Kara" began as early as 1906, but did not become standardized until the mid 1930s.  Japanese masters made this change to distance themselves from Chinese arts, reflect the fact that their newer art was a product of Japanese/Okinawan innovation, indicate the art was an empty-hand system and signal that mental and spiritual qualities were also an important part of training.  By the mid twentieth century, Karate had evolved into numerous global styles.

The Birth of Taekwondo

From the 1890s to 1945, Korea was involved in frequent conflicts with and between China and Japan.  During this period, many Koreans learned extensively about martial arts being practiced in these countries.  As a result, many foreign skills were fused into native Korean martial arts.  Tang Soo Do ("Chinese-hand way"),  Kong Soo Do ("empty-hand way"), Su Bak Ki ("hand striking technique"), and Tae Soo Do ("foot-hand way") were some of the twentieth century hard-style arts that resulted and later evolved into Taekwondo.

In 1910, the Japanese annexed Korea, abolished the Korean monarchy, and outlawed all Korean martial arts.  During this time many Koreans studied Japanese Jujutsu, Judo, and Kendo while continuing to practice native martial arts in secret.  It is thought that Korean monasteries may have played an important role in preserving many of the martial arts.

In the following decades, in the face of continued public unrest and intermittent guerrilla activity, Japanese rule became progressively more brutal.  Censorship tightened, the teaching of Korean history and culture was banned, the Japanese language was made mandatory instruction in all schools, and all public signs were required to be in Japanese.  As World War II approached, hundreds of thousands of Korean labourers were drafted to assist the Japanese Army in Korea and China - essentially slave labour.  Most Koreans view this 36 - year period as one of attempted cultural genocide, in which an entire generation lost its freedom and cultural identity.  Even today the scars are evident.

Korea after 1945

In 1945, World War II ended and Korea regained its independence from Japan.  Many Korean masters who had been living in China and Japan returned to Korea, bringing with them extensive martial training in foreign styles.  The post-war was extremely fertile time for Korean martial arts, as many traditional styles were being rediscovered and synthesized into new eclectic styles.  Many martial arts that had been practiced in secret for decades were being taught publicly for the first time, as various masters vied for public recognition.  In decades to come, younger Korean martial artists would also attempt to rediscover and reorganize a traditional martial skills into new comprehensive systems that would preserve their national character and prevent them from becoming extinct.

Tang Soo Do, Kong Soo Do, Su Bak Ki, Kwon Bo and Tae Soo Do were some of the names that came to represent the different styles that preceded Taekwondo.  Some historian believe that many of these systems were essentially Japanese Karate, which was subsequently fused with re-emerging native Korean techniques, particularly kicks.  There were also masters who claimed to be teaching older forms of Korean T'ae Kyon, most notably Dok-Ki Song (1893-1987).  Some martial historians cite T'ae Kyon as a major influence on Taekwondo, while others think it unlikely given their technical dissimiliarities.  Some of the hard-style schools (called kwans) that emerged between 1944 and 1955 are listed in the table below, along with their founding head master and initial martial style(s):

Early Hard-Style Kwans

Many associations were formed in the two decades following World War II, in an attempt to unify Korean hard-styles under a single umbrella.  However, differences in philosophy and politics, and rivalries among the various schools, made unification impossible.  Many of these early associations were short lived, as various factions repeatedly merged and split apart.  Some of the early Korean associations were:  The Taehan Kong Soo Do Association ("Korea Empty Hand Way"), formed during the Korean War (1950-1953); the Taehan Subak Do Association ("Korea Hand-Strike Way"); and the Taehan Tae Soo Do Association (Korea Foot-Hand Way"), formed in 1961 and later renamed the Korea Taekwondo Association in 1965.  "Tae Soo Do" was one of the names initially favoured as a new umbrella name for Korean hard-style martial arts (c. 1953).

In April 1955, a meeting was held between various masters, historians and political leaders, at which time "Taekwondo" ("foot-fist way") was proposed as a new umbrella name for all Korean hard-styles.  Proponents favoured the name for its descriptive qualities, its phonetic similarities to "Tae Kyon," and its "Korean-ness", which they felt inspired a sense of cultural pride and nationalism.  By the mid 1960ss, most hard-style schools had adopted the new name, although a few did not - most notably some of the Tang Soo Do systems, which continue to use the name "Tang Soo Do" to this day (Note: the Mu Dok Kwan evolved into two distinct systems: Mu Dok Kwan Tang Soo Do and Mu Dok Kwan Taekwondo).

Disputes and friction between the various Taekwondo schools and associations continued throughout the 1960s, with many schools staunchly opposing unification.  Two of the dominant associations that emerged in these years, the Korea Taekwondo Association (KTA) and the International Taekwon-do Federation (ITF), were at irreconcilable odds over a variety of issues ranging from the integration of Taekwondo forms to the authority to control Taekwondo's international growth.  In 1972, General Hong-Hi Choi, founder and head of the International Taekwon-do Federation (and a former president of the KTA), left South Korea, allegedly as a result of political problems stemming from a controversial goodwill trip he made to North Korea.  This resulted in the ITF headquarters being moved to Toronto, Canada.  Ultimately, with government intervention and the ITF out of South Korea, the Korea Taekwondo Association won out in the bid for power, resulting in the formation of the World Taekwondo Federation (WTF) in 1973, with Un-Yong Kim as president.

By late 1970s, the name Taekwondo was commonly in use and the style was considered a major Korean martial art, with formal government recognition.  Eventually, many Taekwondo masters emigrated overseas and established the art globally.